Comparison of Shakespeares Sonnet 73 and Sonnet 116 :: comparison compare contrast essays

Comparison of Shakespeares Sonnet 73 and Sonnet 116 William Shakespeare, in his Sonnet 73 and Sonnet 116, sets forth his vision of the unchanging, persistent and immovable nature of veritable love. According to Shakespeare, love is truly till death do us part, and possibly beyond. Physical infirmity, the ravages of age, or even ones partners inconstancy have no personnel upon the affections of one who sincerely loves. His notion of love is not a romantic one in which an idealized vision of a lover is embraced. Instead he recognizes the weaknesses to which we, as humans, are subject, but still asserts that love conquers all. Shakespeare uses an array of figurative language to convey his message, including metaphor and personification. Thus, in sonnet 73, he studys himself to a woodlet of trees in early winter, When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang Upon those boughs which shake against the cold,... These lines seem to refer to an aged, balding man, bundled unsuc cessfully against the weather. Perhaps, in a big sense, they refer to that time in our lives when our faculties are diminished and we can no longer easily withstand the normal blows of life. He regards his body as a temple- a Bare ruined choirs- where sweet birds used to sing, but it is a body now going to ruin. In Sonnet 116, love is seen as the compass north Star, the fixed point of guidance to ships lost upon the endless sea of the world. It is the point of reference and repose in this stormy, troubled world, an ever-fixed mark That looks on tempests and is never shaken... He personifies the coming of the end of his life as night, which is described as Deaths second self in sonnet 73. However, in Sonnet 116 death appears in the guise of the grim reaper, Father Time, who mows down all of our youth, but still cannot conquer love- Loves not Times fool, though rosy lips and cheeks within his bending sickles compass summate... While both poems make use of figurati ve language, sonnet 73 uses far more imagery than sonnet 116. Sonnet 73 uses the image of the soused of mans life as a wintry grove with the few remaining leaves shivering in the cold.Comparison of Shakespeares Sonnet 73 and Sonnet 116 comparison compare contrast essaysComparison of Shakespeares Sonnet 73 and Sonnet 116 William Shakespeare, in his Sonnet 73 and Sonnet 116, sets forth his vision of the unchanging, persistent and immovable nature of real love. According to Shakespeare, love is truly till death do us part, and possibly beyond. Physical infirmity, the ravages of age, or even ones partners inconstancy have no yield upon the affections of one who sincerely loves. His notion of love is not a romantic one in which an idealized vision of a lover is embraced. Instead he recognizes the weaknesses to which we, as humans, are subject, but still asserts that love conquers all. Shakespeare uses an array of figurative language to convey his message, including m etaphor and personification. Thus, in sonnet 73, he compares himself to a grove of trees in early winter, When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang Upon those boughs which shake against the cold,... These lines seem to refer to an aged, balding man, bundled unsuccessfully against the weather. Perhaps, in a larger sense, they refer to that time in our lives when our faculties are diminished and we can no longer easily withstand the normal blows of life. He regards his body as a temple- a Bare ruined choirs- where sweet birds used to sing, but it is a body now going to ruin. In Sonnet 116, love is seen as the northeast Star, the fixed point of guidance to ships lost upon the endless sea of the world. It is the point of reference and repose in this stormy, troubled world, an ever-fixed mark That looks on tempests and is never shaken... He personifies the coming of the end of his life as night, which is described as Deaths second self in sonnet 73. However, in Sonnet 116 death appears in the guise of the grim reaper, Father Time, who mows down all of our youth, but still cannot conquer love- Loves not Times fool, though rosy lips and cheeks within his bending sickles compass pay off... While both poems make use of figurative language, sonnet 73 uses far more imagery than sonnet 116. Sonnet 73 uses the image of the shut of mans life as a wintry grove with the few remaining leaves shivering in the cold.

More Respect for Life and Fewer Cluster Bombs :: September 11 Terrorism Essays

More Respect for Life and Fewer Cluster Bombs Many peoples reactions to the atrocities of September 11 hire gone from disbelief, to sadness, to anger, quiet or otherwise. We commonly hear that we have received a declaration of war, and should respond accordingly. This essay outlines my arguments for restraint. The moral case. Morality should be universal. If struggle hostile governments by killing civilians is evil and the very worst of human nature, then it is no better for the U.S. to do so than for Afghanistan to. The terrorists who attacked the U.S. last week havent utter up, but probably would describe U.S. foreign policy with evil, cowardly, despicable, and other words that Bush accustomd. They believe that political ends and avenging wrongs from a foreign military justifies killing adversary civilians, even if their support for the government was only indirect. Analogously, Bushs speech stated that We will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed thes e acts and those who harbor them. Calls for a spectacularly bloody retaliatory strike aimed loosely towards the billion Muslims in the world are increasing, while dissent has been muted. Mountains of historical evidence document Americas tolerance for severe collateral damage when attacking the infrastructure of a demonized enemy, such as Saddam or Milosevic. Tuesdays tragedy demonstrated Americas surprising physical vulnerability, but, perhaps much disturbing, our response threatens to show a moral weakness that will be much harder to justify in hindsight. The practical case. In Israel, extremists on both sides use terrorism and random violence for ends which are neither desperate nor irrational -- they aim to derail peace efforts and provoke a violent response on the other side that will cause moderates to reject compromise and side with extremists. Jew or Arab loses meaning in the face of the deeper struggle between hatred and tolerance, though typically only events such as Yitzhak Rabins assassination by an extremist Israeli shock people into remembering. These oft-forgotten and crucial lessons from terror sound like sunlight school truisms the aim of violence is to beget further violence and blood cannot be washed away with blood. These principles must sound a little other-worldly later Tuesdays atrocities, but there is no other time when it is more important that we remember them. Pausing to note that we can prove very little about the motivations of

Lord of the Flies Essay -- Literary Analysis, William Golding

Humans are intricate. They have built civilizations and invented the concept of society, moving accordingly from savage primordial instincts to disciplined behaviour. William Golding, however, does not praise humanity in his pessimistic novel, Lord of The Flies, which tells the story of a group of British schoolboys who are stranded on an unoccupied tropical island without any adults a dystopia. Golding evidently expresses three views of humanity in this novel. He suggests that, without the rules and restrictions on which societies and civilizations are built, humans are intrinsic in ally selfish, impulsive and violent.Golding believes that all people are selfish, wanting to satisfy their own requirements and desires before considering others. Jack, the leader of the choir, has a selfish desire for power. With simple arrogance Jack says, I ought to be chief because Im chapter chorister and head boy. I can sing C-sharp (22). His motives for wanting to become leader are ultimately e gocentric as he mentions nothing or so his utility or his contribution to the group of boys. However, Jacks wish to become leader is partially granted when he leads a hunting expedition. As a result, the boys ignored signal fire burns out, but when Ralph mentions this, Jack becomes vaguely irritated by this irrelevance (69) but is also too happy to let it business organization him (69). The self-absorbed boy has no desire to be rescued and even wants to stay on the island, thus he puts his desire to hunt before everything else and endangers everyone by not tending to essential chores. The boys who hunted with Jack also seem enjoy the experience selfishly, albeit not without regret (some hunters agree that the signal fire should not have been let out) this i... ...mselves at her.... Roger ran around the heap... Jack was on top of the sow stabbing downwards with his knife.... The sow collapsed under them and they were heavy and fulfilled upon her (135). Indeed, the grim descript ion is reserved for Jack and Roger however, it is clear that all the hunters are vehemently piled on top of the sow as they are killing it with ubiquitous violence. In short, humans are elementally violent and Golding expresses this with vivid descriptions of the boys vigour in several violent situations.Golding has a rather pessimistic view of humanity having selfishness, impulsiveness and violence within, shown in his dark yet allegorical novel Lord of the Flies. Throughout the novel, the boys show great self-concern, act rashly, and pummel beasts, boys and bacon. The delicate facade of society is easily toppled by mans true beastly nature.

Life on the Mississippi Essay -- essays research papers

Life on the Mississippi by Mark Twain is his ledger about vital river life during the steamboat era and a melancholy remembrance of it after the Civil War. Mark Twain tells of his life on the river, humorous folktales, and a glimpse of Twains life during his childhood years. The Mississippi River was a major part of Mark Twains life. The river In the three introductory ones which precede these, the physical character of the river is sketched, and brief reference is made to the early travelers and explorers of the stream, -- De Soto, Marquette, and La Salle these latter belonging to the epoch of what Mr. Clemens quaintly calls "historical history," as distinguished from that other unconventional history, which he does non define, but certainly embodies in the most graphic form. There are some good touches in this opening portion as where the author refers to "Louis XIV., of elevated memory," and, speaking of indifference which attended the discovery ofthe Mississi ppi, remarks, "Apparently, nobody happened to want such a river, nobody needed it, nobody was curious about it so, for a atomic number 6 and a half, the Mississippi remained out of the market and undisturbed. When De Soto found it, he was not hunting for a river, and had no present occasion for one consequently he did not value it, or even take any particular notice of it." We are also presented with a chapter from an unpublished work by the writer, particularisation the adventures of a southw...

Symbolism in Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury Essay -- Fahrenheit 451 R

Ray Bradburys satire, Fahrenheit 451, is a novel full of symbols criticizing the modern world. Among those symbols appears The trail. The Hounds actions and even so its shape are reflections of the society Bradbury has predicted to come.Montags world continues on without thought without any real reason. There is no learning, no growth, and no purpose. The Mechanical Hound slept but did not sleep, lived but did not live in its gently humming, gently vibrating, softly illuminated kennel back in the dark recess of the firehouse (24), wrote Bradbury to describe this hound. Like the hound, society was alive yet dead as well, drudging through life mindless. The Hound was a programmed robot that didnt occasion on its own that only acted as it was told. Captain Beatty states, It just functions. It has a trajectory we decide on for it. It follows through. It targets itself, homes itself, and cuts off. Its only copper wire, storage batteries, and electricity (20), and It doesnt come b ack anything we dont want it to think (27). That society was programmed to not think, wonder or ask why. They didnt do anything that they werent supposed to do. Today, everything is happening just as The Hound is controlled. Programming is happening in our very world. Take schools for example. Consider Pavlovs experiment with ringing bells to provoke an automatic response in dogs. He rang a bell the dogs salivated expecting food. The school board rings a bell, and students ris...

Symbolism in Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury Essay -- Fahrenheit 451 R

Ray Bradburys satire, Fahrenheit 451, is a novel full of symbols criticizing the modern world. Among those symbols appears The pawl. The Hounds actions and even its shape are reflections of the society Bradbury has predicted to come.Montags world continues on without thought without any real reason. There is no learning, no growth, and no purpose. The Mechanical Hound slept but did not sleep, lived but did not live in its gently humming, gently vibrating, softly illuminated kennel back in the dark corner of the firehouse (24), wrote Bradbury to describe this hound. Like the hound, society was alive yet dead as well, drudging through life mindless. The Hound was a programmed zombie that didnt thing on its own that only acted as it was told. Captain Beatty states, It just functions. It has a trajectory we decide on for it. It follows through. It targets itself, homes itself, and cuts off. Its only copper wire, memory board batteries, and electricity (20), and It doesnt think an ything we dont want it to think (27). That society was programmed to not think, wonder or ask why. They didnt do anything that they werent supposed to do. Today, everything is hap just as The Hound is controlled. Programming is happening in our very world. Take schools for example. Consider Pavlovs experiment with ringing bells to provoke an automatic solution in dogs. He rang a bell the dogs salivated expecting food. The school board rings a bell, and students ris...

Astromnomy Lab Questions Essay

1. Why do some scientists believe that there might impart been purport on Mars? Some scientists believe there was life on Mars due to a number of factors. For one we know there was at one point a substantial amount of melted urine when the planet was much younger. We also know Marss electromagnetic field has dampened, making it more susceptible to interstellar heat and radiation, and so eliminating the life that could have existed. There are also other several factors including volcanic activity and evidence of salt oceans.2. Why are scientists interested in whether water was or is on Mars? What do their tests and observations suggest about the possibility of water on Mars? Scientists are interested in whether water was or is on mars because this is the most direct clue to the signature of life. Scientists tests indicate most if not all water is frozen on Mars, but it was not in the distant past during which life could have existed. 3. Why do some scientists believe that life m ay not have ever existed on Mars? Some scientists believe this because they say it is too far on back in the goldilocks zone. Others note the mineral paper and lack of a strong atmosphere containing proper gas elements. 4. What may have happened to the water on Mars?The atmosphere may have been pursy away over time due to the damping of its magnetic fields and thus creating frigid surface conditions freezing all liquid water. 5. What do scientists believe may have happened to leave Mars vulnerable to the solar winds? Scientists hypothesize that the degradation of Marss inter core which produces its electromagnetic field that protects the planet from interstellar winds and storms. 6. Do you think life existed or exists on Mars? Why or why not? Use information from the video and unit to exit support for your reasoning.Mars Up Close

Pike by Ted Hughes Essay

Envisage the Yin and Yang emblem. The idea behind it is that there is no such thing as purity. You cant have unadulterated evil there is an element in all things of some good, however small. Similarly, you cant have pure goodness there is an element in all things good that is itself bad. We see the idea in great poems like Chinua Achebes Vultures and in our twenty-four hours to day actions as member of a fickle and capricious human race.This is the idea of Pike. It is attempting to demystify debunk a stereotype. Its kind of like a lovemaking poem to what many consider a hideous creature such is Hughess awe and veneration of the creature. Hughes more than anything else is trying to make us acquire the beauty of the pike, its power, its wonder, its awesomeness and its importance, to both him and us.Dont get put off by its size if you break down Hughes Pike into logical sections, then this poem will make perfect sense. The basic shape is an exploration of identity in stanzas 1- 4 personal experience in 5-7 and in stanzas 8-11, a shift in and reassertion of the pikes power.The primary idea behind Pike is pike the beauty of pike, the malevolence of pike, and Hughes essentially tries to communicate how in one simple, a great deal overlooked animal exist two profundities of existence, the good and the bad.There is beauty in how it moves, how it lives, how it is made beauty in its power and sense of threat. The first 4 stanzas basically instal us this paradox and underpinning this is Hughes sense of awe and disbelief. The tone is quiet, appreciative, impersonal as if a connoisseur appreciating and marvelling over the contradictions of such an animal.Stanzas 5-6 shift and give a personal account of Hughes trying to keep them as pets, to no avail, and linking his experience to the gruesome aggressiveness he seems to have witnessed in the wild in stanzas 6-7. These animals are fearsome, programmed to be killers, and intolerant even of each other. Though the im ages are more grim and violent, there is no sense of judgement at surpass its detached and neutral at best, even within its informative tone, there is a sense of admiration for its power, for its solitariness for its authenticity to itself.Stanzas 8-11 suddenly expand outwards, and refurbishment us to a personal experience Hughes fishing in an ancient pond, fishing for pike that he imagines to be as ancient as the monks that created it, as ancient as the idea of England itself. And as he fishes for the pike, we get a sense of reversal the poet, who spoke so convincingly of his expertise, experience and veneration for the animal for so much of this poem, may have narratorial power (after all, it is he who controls the poem the pike is the object of Hughes gaze), but in reality, he possesses none he is nix more than potential prey for the violent fish. The final stanzas see a defined emotional shift to one founded upon a sense of uncertainty, of vulnerability how he is decide dly a target for the predator. However, you get the sense that Hughes wouldnt judge or even begrudge the pike this it is merely doing what it is meant to do, and, Hughes would argue, that is just as it should be.

Second Foundation 13. Lady

Arcadia felt triumphant. How life had changed since Pelleas Anthor had stuck his silly face up against her window and e genuinely(prenominal) because she had the vision and courageousness to do what needed to be done.Here she was on Kalgan. She had been to the great Central Theater the largest in the Galaxy and sit one acrossn in person some of the singing stars who were known even in the distant Foundation. She had shopped all on her own along the Flowered Path, mode center of the gayest world in Space. And she had made her own selections because Homir plainly didnt know any thing about it at all. The saleswomen raised no objections at all to long, shiny dresses with those vertical sweeps that made her hear so tall and Foundation bills went a long, long way. Homir had given her a ten-credit bill and when she changed it to Kalganian Kalganids, it made a terribly thick sheaf.She had even had her hair redone sort of half-short in back, with two shine curls over each temp le. And it was treated so that it looked goldier than incessantly it just shone.But this, this was best of all. To be sure, the Palace of Lord Stettin wasnt as grand and lavish as the theaters, or as mysterious and historical as the old palace of the scuff of which, so far they had only glimpsed the lonely towers in their air feather across the planet but, imagine, a real Lord. She was rapt in the glory of it.And not only that. She was actually face to face with his Mistress. Arcadia capitalized the word in her mind, because she k sunrise(prenominal) the persona such women had played in history knew their glamour and power. In fact, she had often thought of being an all-powerful and glittering creature, herself, but somehow mistresses werent in fashion at the Foundation just then and besides, her father probably wouldnt let her, if it came to that.Of course, the bird Callia didnt quite come up to Arcadias notion of the part. For one thing, she was rather plump, and didnt look at all wicked and dangerous. just sort of faded and near-sighted. Her voice was high, too, instead of throaty, and-Callia said, Would you identical more tea, child?Ill have another cup, thank you, your grace, or was it your highness?Arcadia continued with a connoisseurs condescension, Those are lovely pearls you are wearing, my lady. (On the whole, my lady protrudemed best.)Oh? Do you think so? Callia seemed vaguely pleased. She removed them and let them swing milkily to and fro. Would you deal them? You can have them, if you like.Oh, my-You really mean- She found them in her hand, then, repelling them mournfully, she said, Father wouldnt like it.He wouldnt like the pearls? But theyre quite nice pearls.He wouldnt like my taking them, I mean. Youre not jobd to take expensive presents from other people, he puts.You arent? But I mean, this was a present to me from Poo from the First Citizen. Was that wrong, do you suppose?Arcadia reddened. I didnt mean-But Callia had tired of the subject. She let the pearls slide to the ground and said, You were spillage to tell me about the Foundation. Please do so right now.And Arcadia was suddenly at a loss. What does one say about a world dull to tears. To her, the Foundation was a suburban town, a comfor dodge house, the annoying necessities of education, the uninteresting eternities of a quiet life. She said, uncertainly, Its just like you view in the book-films, I suppose.Oh, do you view book-films? They give me such a headache when I try. But do you know I always love video stories about your Traders such big, brute(a) men. Its always so exciting. Is your friend, Mr. Munn, one of them? He doesnt seem nearly savage enough. Most of the Traders had beards and big bass voices, and were so domineering with women dont you think so?Arcadia smiled, glassily. Thats just part of history, my lady. I mean, when the Foundation was Young, the Traders were the pioneers pushing back the frontiers and bringing culture to the re st of the Galaxy. We learned all about that in school. But that time has passed. We dont have Traders any more just corporations and things.Really? What a shame. Then what does Mr. Munn do? I mean, if hes not a Trader.Uncle Homirs a librarian.Callia put a hand to her lips and tittered. You mean he takes care of book-films. Oh, my It seems like such a silly thing for a grown man to do.Hes a very good librarian, my lady. It is an occupation that is very highly regarded at the Foundation. She put down the little, iridescent teacup upon the milky-metaled table surface.Her hostess was all concern. But my dear child. Im sure I didnt mean to offend you. He essential be a very intelligent man. I could see it in his eyes as soon as I looked at him. They were so so intelligent. And he must be merry, too, to want to see the Mules palace.Brave? Arcadias internal awareness twitched. This was what she was waiting for. Intrigue Intrigue With great indifference, she asked, staring idly at her thu mbtip Why must one be brave to wish to see the Mules palace?Didnt you know? Her eyes were round, and her voice sank. Theres a curse on it. When he died, the Mule directed that no one ever enter it until the Empire of the Galaxy is established. Nobody on Kalgan would dare even to enter the grounds.Arcadia absorbed that. But thats superstition-Dont say that, Callia was distressed. Poochie always says that. He says its useful to say it isnt though, in hallow to maintain his hold over the people. But I notice hes never gone in himself. And neither did Thallos, who was First Citizen before Poochie. A thought struck her and she was all curiosity again But why does Mr. Munn want to see the Palace?And it was here that Arcadias careful plan could be put into action. She knew well from the books she had read that a patterns mistress was the real power behind the throne, that she was the very well-spring of influence. Therefore, if Uncle Homir failed with Lord Stettin and she was sure he wo uld she must retrieve that failure with Lady Callia. To be sure, Lady Callia was something of a puzzle. She didnt seem at all bright. But, well, all history proved-She said, Theres a reason, my lady but will you keep it in authorization?Cross my heart, said Callia, making the appropriate gesture on the soft, billowing whiteness of her breast.Arcadias thoughts kept a sentence ahead of her words. Uncle Homir is a great means on the Mule, you know. Hes written books and books about it, and he thinks that all of Galactic history has been changed since the Mule conquered the Foundation. Oh, my.He thinks the Seldon Plan-Callia clapped her hands. I know about the Seldon Plan. The videos about the Traders were always all about the Seldon Plan. It was supposed to arrange to have the Foundation win all the time. Science had something to do with it, though I could never quite see how. I always get so restless when I have to listen to explanations. But you go right ahead, my dear. Its diffe rent when you explain. You make everything seem so clear.Arcadia continued, Well, dont you see then that when the Foundation was defeated by the Mule, the Seldon Plan didnt work and it hasnt worked since. So who will form the Second Empire?The Second Empire?Yes, one must be formed some day, but how? Thats the problem, you see. And theres the Second Foundation.The Second Foundation? She was quite completely lost.Yes, theyre the planners of history that are following in the footsteps of Seldon. They stopped the Mule because he was premature, but now, they may be supporting Kalgan.Why?Because Kalgan may now offer the best chance of being the nucleus for a new Empire.Dimly, Lady Callia seemed to grasp that. You mean Poochie is tone ending to make a new Empire.We cant tell for sure. Uncle Homir thinks so, but hell have to see the Mules records to find out.Its all very complicated, said Lady Callia, doubtfully.Arcadia gave up. She had done her best.***Lord Stettin was in a more-or-less s avage humor. The session with the milksop from the Foundation had been quite unrewarding. It had been worse it had been embarrassing. To be absolute ruler of twenty-seven worlds, master of the Galaxys greatest military machine, owner of the universes most vaulting ambition and left to argue nonsense with an antiquarian.DamnationHe was to violate the springer of Kalgan, was he? To allow the Mules palace to be ransacked so that a play around could write another book? The cause of science The sacredness of knowledge spacious Galaxy Were these catchwords to be thrown in his face in all seriousness? Besides and his flesh prickled slightly there was the matter of the curse. He didnt deal in it no intelligent man could. But if he was going to defy it, it would have to be for a better reason than any the fool had advanced.What do you want? he snapped, and Lady Callia cringed visibly in the doorway.Are you busy?Yes. I am busy.But theres nobody here, Poochie. Couldnt I even treat to y ou for a minute?Oh, Galaxy What do you want? Now hurry.Her words stumbled. The little girl told me they were going into the Mules palace. I thought we could go with her. It must be gorgeous inside.She told you that, did she? Well, she isnt and we arent. Now go tend your own business. Ive had about enough of you.But, Poochie, why not? Arent you going to let them? The little girl said that you were going to make an EmpireI dont care what she said- What was that? He strode to Callia, and caught her firmly above the elbow, so that his fingers sank deeply into the soft flesh, What did she tell you?Youre hurting me. I cant remember what she said, if youre going to look at me like that.He released her, and she stood there for a moment, rubbing vainly at the red marks. She whimpered, The little girl made me promise not to tell.Thats too bad. Tell me NowWell, she said the Seldon Plan was changed and that there was another Foundation somewheres that was arranging to have you make an Empire. T hats all. She said Mr. Munn was a very most-valuable scientist and that the Mules palace would have proof of all that. Thats every bit of what she said. Are you angry?But Stettin did not answer. He left the room, hurriedly, with Callias cowlike eyes staring mournfully after him. Two orders were sent out over the official seal of the First Citizen before the hour was up. One had the effect of sending five cytosine ships of the line into space on what were officially to be termed as war games. The other had the effect of throwing a single man into confusion.Homir Munn ceased his preparations to leave when that second order reached him. It was, of course, official permission to enter the palace of the Mule. He read and reread it with anything but joy.But Arcadia was delighted. She knew what had happened.Or, at any rate, she thought she did.

Full Set of Aqa A2 Tectonics Notes

FULL SET OF NOTES ON TECHTONICS 2012 AQA GEOGRAPHY FULL SET OF NOTES ON TECHTONICS 2012 AQA GEOGRAPHY TECHTONICS TOPICS UNDERSTOOD/COVERED? home base MOVEMENT SEISMICITY VULCANICITY These nones were copied from an AQA textbook. They contain EVERYTHING you command to know for the exam for the tectonics section. You get outing however, need to use your own sequel studies as these be not included. You will need 2 case studies for vol endoes, and 2 case studies for temblors. You ideally need to have one LEDC and one MEDC for around(prenominal)ly.You could use Iceland and Pinatubo for the vol behindoes and Haiti and Japan for the earthquakes These notes were copied from an AQA textbook. They contain EVERYTHING you need to know for the exam for the tectonics section. You WILL however, need to use your own case studies as these be not included. You will need 2 case studies for vol whoremasteroes, and 2 case studies for earthquakes. You ideally need to have one LEDC and one MEDC for each. You could use Iceland and Pinatubo for the volcanoes and Haiti and Japan for the earthquakes CORE- size of mars, densest part, made of rocknrolls of iron and nickel. Rigid pper mantle, apart from this nearly of the mantle is semi molten with temperatures unspoiled the core reaching 5000 degrees. These high temperatures generate convection currents. Thinnest layer is the insolence which has the coolest less dense rocks. These rocks be cryptical In silicon o2 aluminium potassium and sodium. 2 TYPES OF CRUST marine and continental. Composed of mainly sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks. Continental resentment can be 70km thick. CORE- size of mars, densest part, made of rocks of iron and nickel. Rigid speeding mantle, apart from this most of the mantle is semi molten with temperatures near the core reaching 5000 degrees.These high temperatures generate convection currents. Thinnest layer is the change scrape up which has the coolest less dense roc ks. These rocks ar rich In silicon o2 aluminium potassium and sodium. TWO TYPES OF CRUST Oceanic and continental. Composed of mainly sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks. Continental glow can be 70km thick. PLATE TECHTONIC THEORY People had noticed that certain continents looked like they had painserly fitted together. evidence built up oer sentence and Alf inflammation Wegner was allowed to publish his theory. He evokeed that they were once all joined and called Pangaea.Wegner proposed that at some time land had drifted apart. Evidence included 1)Continental fit seemed to fit together if placed besides each other. 2) Geological Evidence rocks of the age and type argon fix in SE Brazil and South Africa. The trends of mountains in East USA and NW europium are similar when they are placed in nonagenarian positions. sympathetic glacial deposits are found in Antarctica, S America 3) Climatological Evidence Places as far apart as Antarctica, normality America and the UK all contain burn deposits of similar age that were formed in tropical conditions. They are no longer in tropical climate zones and must have drifted apart. )Biological Evidence Similar fossil formations are found on either side of the Antartic. aforementioned(prenominal) reptile called meosaurus is found only in S America and South Africa sediments. Plant remains, PLATE TECHTONIC THEORY People had noticed that certain continents looked like they had once fitted together. Evidence built up over time and Alfred Wegner was allowed to publish his theory. He suggested that they were once all joined and called Pangaea. Wegner proposed that at some time land had drifted apart. Evidence included 1)Continental fit seemed to fit together if placed besides each other. ) Geological Evidence rocks of the age and type are found in SE Brazil and South Africa. The trends of mountains in East USA and NW Europe are similar when they are placed in old positions. Similar glacial deposits are found in Antarctica, S America 3) Climatological Evidence Places as far apart as Antarctica, North America and the UK all contain coal deposits of similar age that were formed in tropical conditions. They are no longer in tropical climate zones and must have drifted apart. 4)Biological Evidence Similar fossil formations are found on either side of the Antartic.Same reptile called meosaurus is found only in S America and South Africa sediments. Plant remains, LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH positive MARGINS marine RIDGES Where twain collection exfoliations pull apart thither is a weaker zone in the crust and an affix in heat near the come. The impatientter expanded crust forms a ridge. The central part of the ridge may feature a central valley where a section of crust has subsided into the magma below. The split in the crust provides a low pressure zone where the much liquid lavas can erupt to form gunman volcanoes. If these eruptions persist, volcanoes may die until they reach the arise.Islands can be formed. For instance Iceland a volcanic island on a spreading ridge. In 1963 eruptions created the island of surtsey to the south of Iceland. As crust is pushed external from the heat source at the mid(prenominal) ocean ridge it cools, contracts and sinks towards qabalisticer regions. Where it functions covered in fine sediments. Occasionally fragments of ocean floor are left at the break through during subduction and the layers of pillow basalts and later deep ocean sediments are exposed. E. g. Toodos ophilite suit in Cyprus. LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH CONSTRUCTIVE MARGINS OCEANIC RIDGESWhere two racing shells pull apart there is a weaker zone in the crust and an increase in heat near the surface. The hotter expanded crust forms a ridge. The central part of the ridge may feature a central valley where a section of crust has subsided into the magma below. The split in the crust provides a low pressure zone where the more liquid lavas can erupt to form subma rine volcanoes. If these eruptions persist, volcanoes may develop until they reach the surface. Islands can be formed. For instance Iceland a volcanic island on a spreading ridge. In 1963 eruptions created the island of surtsey to the south of Iceland.As crust is pushed forth from the heat source at the mid ocean ridge it cools, contracts and sinks towards deeper regions. Where it becomes covered in fine sediments. Occasionally fragments of ocean floor are left at the surface during subduction and the layers of pillow basalts and later deep ocean sediments are exposed. E. g. Toodos ophilite suit in Cyprus. RIFT VALLEYS When spreading pass offs infra a major land mass, the estrus and subsequent updoming of the crust leads to fracturing and rifting. As the sides of the rift move apart, central sections drop down to form rift valleys.Mount Kenya are surface evidence of the igneous action at law on a lower floor. As 4000km long up to 50km spacious and 600m in depth. This feature c an still widen allowing the sea to inundate it. To the North two rifts have widened into the red sea and the gulf of Arabia respectively. present the rifting has continued and NEW OCEAN FLOOR is forming between Africa on the SW side and Arabia (NE). RIFT VALLEYS When spreading occurs beneath a major land mass, the heating and subsequent updoming of the crust leads to fracturing and rifting. As the sides of the rift move apart, central sections drop down to form rift valleys.Mount Kenya are surface evidence of the igneous activity beneath. As 4000km long up to 50km wide and 600m in depth. This feature can still widen allowing the sea to inundate it. To the North two rifts have widened into the red sea and the gulf of Arabia respectively. Here the rifting has continued and NEW OCEAN FLOOR is forming between Africa on the SW side and Arabia (NE). middle ocean ridges are irregular sheer around the planet. If new ocean crust was created equally on both sides, it would appear to creat e the possibility of over lapping new crust on concave sections and divergence on convex sections.The fact that there are no mountains of ocean floor or sudden gaps in crust is explained by the fact that the seemingly continuous spreading ridges are often bisected by transform (slip) faults, which allow the crust created at the ridges to move outwards at antithetical rates. Seismicity associated with much(prenominal) deeds on and around the ridges is characterised by shallow localise earthquakes. Mid ocean ridges are irregular curving around the planet. If new ocean crust was created equally on both sides, it would appear to create the possibility of over lapping new crust on concave sections and divergence on convex sections.The fact that there are no mountains of ocean floor or sudden gaps in crust is explained by the fact that the seemingly continuous spreading ridges are prevalently bisected by transform (slip) faults, which allow the crust created at the ridges to move ou twards at different rates. Seismicity associated with much(prenominal) movements on and around the ridges is characterised by shallow focus earthquakes. LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH injurious PLATE MARGINS Destructive plate margins are found where plates converge. There are terzetto types of convergent margin 1)Oceanic plate meeting continental plate )Oceanic plate meeting nautical plate 3)Continental plate meeting continental plate LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH DESTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGINS Destructive plate margins are found where plates converge. There are three types of convergent margin 1)Oceanic plate meeting continental plate 2)Oceanic plate meeting nautical plate 3)Continental plate meeting continental plate 1) OCEANIC PLATE MEETING OCEANIC PLATE (CONVERGING) When two pieces of naval crust on DIFFERENT PLATES COLLIDE one is subducted beneath the other. The crust that has subducted may be marginally denser or one is abject faster than the other.The processes that accompany subduc tion are much the same as in the case of ocean/continental plate partake, BUT where the volcanoes usually erupt on crust covered by oceans they form islands. These form characteristically curving lines of new volcanic land known as island arcs with deep ocean trenches. much(prenominal) island custody may develop over one million million millions of years to become major land e. g. JAPAN OR INDONESIA. Subduction produces frequent shallow- to deep focus earthquakes, some of which are immensely powerful. e. g.In Indonesia where the Australian plate is being subducted beneath Eurasian plate there was an earthquake in 2004 measuring 9 on Richter scale. 2) OCEANIC PLATE MEETING OCEANIC PLATE (CONVERGING) When two pieces of oceanic crust on DIFFERENT PLATES COLLIDE one is subducted beneath the other. The crust that has subducted may be marginally denser or one is moving faster than the other. The processes that accompany subduction are much the same as in the case of ocean/continental plate meeting, BUT where the volcanoes usually erupt on crust covered by oceans they form islands.These form characteristically curving lines of new volcanic land known as island arcs with deep ocean trenches. Such island chains may develop over millions of years to become major land e. g. JAPAN OR INDONESIA. Subduction produces frequent shallow- to deep focus earthquakes, some of which are immensely powerful. e. g. In Indonesia where the Australian plate is being subducted beneath Eurasian plate there was an earthquake in 2004 measuring 9 on Richter scale. 3) OCEANIC PLATE MEETING CONTINENTAL PLATE (CONVERGING) Oceanic crust is denser than continental.When plates jar the oceanic crust is SUBDUCTED or taken down into the upper mantle. As oceanic crust descends, friction with the overlying continental crust builds up and can incur MAJOR EARTHQUAKES. Destructive margins are some of the most seismically alert zones in the world. Rocks scraped forth the descending plate and foldin g of the continental crust helps to create young fold mountain chains on the edge of continental slew such as THE ANDES (South America). Deep ocean trenches are found along the seaward edge of deleterious margins. They mark where one plates begins to descend beneath another.E. g Peru Chile 8km deep trench. The friction caused by the sinking slab of ocean floor also generates loads of heat leading to partial melting of the crust. Magmas derived from the melting of old ocean floor basalts. They try to rise up through and through fissures and by burning their way through overlying rock until they reach the surface. Where volcanoes erupt on land they help to create young fold mountains such as the Andes. Because magmas from which the volcanic lavas originate have incorporated elements of older crust and continental rocks as they rose, they are more silica rich and more acidic.These magmas attend less easily & leave intrusive such as batholiths within mountains and generating extrusiv e such as andesitic lava to erupt through volcanoes. Such sticker lava frequently blocks off their own vents until erupting violently to form conical shaped volcanoes of alternating layers of ash and lava. Vulcanicity is a key feature of subduction zones, around 80% of all officious volcanoes are found around subduction zones. 4) OCEANIC PLATE MEETING CONTINENTAL PLATE (CONVERGING) Oceanic crust is denser than continental. When plates collide the oceanic crust is SUBDUCTED or taken down into the upper mantle.As oceanic crust descends, friction with the overlying continental crust builds up and can cause MAJOR EARTHQUAKES. Destructive margins are some of the most seismically active zones in the world. Rocks scraped off the descending plate and folding of the continental crust helps to create young fold mountain chains on the edge of continental masses such as THE ANDES (South America). Deep ocean trenches are found along the seaward edge of destructive margins. They mark where one p lates begins to descend beneath another. E. g Peru Chile 8km deep trench.The friction caused by the sinking slab of ocean floor also generates loads of heat leading to partial melting of the crust. Magmas derived from the melting of old ocean floor basalts. They try to rise up through fissures and by burning their way through overlying rock until they reach the surface. Where volcanoes erupt on land they help to create young fold mountains such as the Andes. Because magmas from which the volcanic lavas originate have incorporated elements of older crust and continental rocks as they rose, they are more silica rich and more acidic.These magmas flow less easily & leave intrusive such as batholiths within mountains and generating extrusive such as andesitic lava to erupt through volcanoes. Such sticker lava frequently blocks off their own vents until erupting violently to form conical shaped volcanoes of alternating layers of ash and lava. Vulcanicity is a key feature of subduction zon es, around 80% of all active volcanoes are found around subduction zones. 5) CONTINENTAL PLATE/CONTINENTAL PLATE CONVERGENCE where subduction of oceanic crust draws two continental masses together, a collision margin may develop.As continents have similar assiduity and thus buoyancy, they will not be subducted. Instead they collide with each other. Volcanic associated with earlier subduction and sediments scraped off the vanishing ocean floor are mixed up and compressed to form young fold mountain chains with deep roots in the lithosphere. The subcontinent of India is an manikin It was propelled by sea floor spreading of the indo Eurasian plate some 40 million years ago. This collision formed the Himalayan mountain chain. Himalayas are constantly changing because these highly folded and faulted regions do not become seismically quiet after 1st impact.At this extreme lift wreathing and erosion reduce mountain height, that isostatic lift in some areas produced by continuing plate motion means that Everest is increasing by 2. 5cm a year. The whole region experiences high levels of seismicity cause earthquakes in 2001, Afghanistan 2002, Pakistan 2005, and China 2008. isostatic lift= uplift of land mass resulting from tectonic processes 6) CONTINENTAL PLATE/CONTINENTAL PLATE CONVERGENCE where subduction of oceanic crust draws two continental masses together, a collision margin may develop.As continents have similar density and thus buoyancy, they will not be subducted. Instead they collide with each other. Volcanic associated with earlier subduction and sediments scraped off the vanishing ocean floor are mixed up and compressed to form young fold mountain chains with deep roots in the lithosphere. The subcontinent of India is an example It was propelled by sea floor spreading of the indo Eurasian plate some 40 million years ago. This collision formed the Himalayan mountain chain. Himalayas are constantly changing because these highly folded and faulted regions do not become seismically quiet after 1st impact.At this extreme altitude wreathing and erosion reduce mountain height, but isostatic lift in some areas produced by continuing plate motion means that Everest is increasing by 2. 5cm a year. The whole region experiences high levels of seismicity causing earthquakes in 2001, Afghanistan 2002, Pakistan 2005, and China 2008. isostatic lift= uplift of land mass resulting from tectonic processes HOT SPOTS Maps of volcano dissemination indicate that although most active volcanoes are associated with divergent and convergent plate margins, others do not set to this pattern. Hawaiian Islands are an example.Formed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean more than 3,200km from the nearest plate boundary. slightly geologists believe the long lived and stationary hot spots are the result of plumes of magma originating deep within the mantle. Others suggest they are created from far less depth and in fact are moving slowly. As basaltic guard volc anoes erupt through the drifting oceanic crust, they may build up from ocean floor to form an island over time. However they become part of the plate and are gradually moved away from the heat source. Some islands will become eroded by waves and form flat excel sea mounts called guyots.Newer volcanoes erupt over the hot sport and a new island is formed. This sequence can form a chain of islands A new island will form to SE of Hawaii when the Loihi submarine volcano builds up to sea level. HOT SPOTS Maps of volcano distribution indicate that although most active volcanoes are associated with divergent and convergent plate margins, others do not conform to this pattern. Hawaiian Islands are an example. Formed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean more than 3,200km from the nearest plate boundary. Some geologists believe the long lived and stationary hot spots are the result of plumes of magma originating deep within the mantle.Others suggest they are created from far less depth and in f act are moving slowly. As basaltic shield volcanoes erupt through the drifting oceanic crust, they may build up from ocean floor to form an island over time. However they become part of the plate and are gradually moved away from the heat source. Some islands will become eroded by waves and form flat topped sea mounts called guyots. Newer volcanoes erupt over the hot sport and a new island is formed. This sequence can form a chain of islands A new island will form to SE of Hawaii when the Loihi submarine volcano builds up to sea level. CONSERVATIVE MARGINSThese margins are some generation referred to as passive or slip margins and occur where two plates meet and the direction of plate motion is parallel. Two examples 1)San Andreas fault in Calafornia 2)Alpine Fault in New Zealand No crust is destroyed or created, although these areas of frequent seismic activity as the build up of friction as plates pass each other is released by earthquakes. THEY ARE NOT ASSOCIATED WITH wide awake VULCANISM. CONSERVATIVE MARGINS These margins are sometimes referred to as passive or slip margins and occur where two plates meet and the direction of plate motion is parallel.Two examples 1)San Andreas fault in Calafornia 2)Alpine Fault in New Zealand No crust is destroyed or created, although these areas of frequent seismic activity as the build up of friction as plates pass each other is released by earthquakes. THEY ARE NOT ASSOCIATED WITH ACTIVE VULCANISM. body politicquakes occur when a build up of pressure within the humankinds crust is suddenly released and the primer shakes violently. The head teacher within the crust where the pressure release occurs is known as the focus. This can be 1) Shallow 0-70kmkm 2)Intermediate 70-300km 3)Deep 300-700kmThe seismic blast waves have their highest level of energy at the focus energy decreases as the waves spread outwards. The place on the primings surface immediately supra the focus is called the epicentre. It receives the high est amount of energy and so the most potentially dangerous location. Seismic waves travel out from the focus, there are three types of waves 1)P Waves- (primary) are the winged and shake the Earth backwards and forwards. These travel the fastest and move through solids and liquids. 2) S- Waves (Secondary) are slower and move with a sideways motion, shaking the Earth at right angles to the direction of travel.They cannot move through liquids but are more damaging. 3) Surface Waves- these travel near to the surface and slower than the two mentioned already & theyre more destructive than either. They include L waves (long waves) which causes the ground to move sideways and Raleigh waves which make it move up and down. Earthquakes occur when a build up of pressure within the Earths crust is suddenly released and the ground shakes violently. The point within the crust where the pressure release occurs is known as the focus. This can be 1) Shallow 0-70kmkm 2)Intermediate 70-300km 3)Deep 300-700kmThe seismic shock waves have their highest level of energy at the focus energy decreases as the waves spread outwards. The place on the Earths surface immediately above the focus is called the epicentre. It receives the highest amount of energy and so the most potentially dangerous location. Seismic waves travel out from the focus, there are three types of waves 1)P Waves- (primary) are the fastest and shake the Earth backwards and forwards. These travel the fastest and move through solids and liquids. 2) S- Waves (Secondary) are slower and move with a sideways motion, shaking the Earth at right angles to the direction of travel.They cannot move through liquids but are more damaging. 3) Surface Waves- these travel near to the surface and slower than the two mentioned already & theyre more destructive than either. They include L waves (long waves) which causes the ground to move sideways and Raleigh waves which make it move up and down. EARTHQUAKES EARTHQUAKES Magnitude and relative frequency Magnitude is amount of energy released and is measured using a RICHTER SCALE. A logarithmic scale. An earthquake measuring 7. 6 is 10 times greater than one measuring 6. 6. The intensity of an earthquake is measured on the 12 point Mercalli scale which reflects the effects of the answer.Frequency of earthquake events varies greatly between seismically active regions (e. g Sunda Trench off SW coast of Indonesia) and seismic zones within the shield areas of ancient crust (Greenland) Seismometers are instruments that measure and genius the shock waves created by earthquakes. They locate and measure the size of shock waves and are used in establishing patterns of seismic activity that may help predict future earthquakes. Aftershocks- are earthquakes that espouse on from the main event and may last for months afterwards. They are generated by the Earth settling back after the disruption.Aftershocks in Indonesian earthquake of 2004 was followed by a series of afters hocks one being 6. 1 in magnitude. Magnitude and frequency Magnitude is amount of energy released and is measured using a RICHTER SCALE. A logarithmic scale. An earthquake measuring 7. 6 is 10 times greater than one measuring 6. 6. The intensity of an earthquake is measured on the 12 point Mercalli scale which reflects the effects of the event. Frequency of earthquake events varies greatly between seismically active regions (e. g Sunda Trench off SW coast of Indonesia) and seismic zones within the shield areas of ancient crust (Greenland)Seismometers are instruments that measure and record the shock waves created by earthquakes. They locate and measure the size of shock waves and are used in establishing patterns of seismic activity that may help predict future earthquakes. Aftershocks- are earthquakes that follow on from the main event and may last for months afterwards. They are generated by the Earth settling back after the disruption. Aftershocks in Indonesian earthquake of 2004 was followed by a series of aftershocks one being 6. 1 in magnitude. TSUNAMI coarse sea waves generated by disturbances on the sea floor.They are most often triggered by earthquakes and submarine landslides. Most devastating example occurred in December 2004 in Indonesia. TSUNAMI Enormous sea waves generated by disturbances on the sea floor. They are most often triggered by earthquakes and submarine landslides. Most devastating example occurred in December 2004 in Indonesia. HUMAN IMPACT Depends on population density and distance from the epicentre Primary Impacts *Collapse of constructs, roads and bridges *disruption to gas, electricity and pee supplies Some are primary effects- instanter from the earthquake, some are secondary e. g. lectricity breaks so they cannot cook etc. Secondary include *Fires from ruptured gas mains *polluted piddle * discharge of trade HUMAN IMPACT Depends on population density and distance from the epicentre Primary Impacts *Collapse of buildings, r oads and bridges *disruption to gas, electricity and wet supplies Some are primary effects- directly from the earthquake, some are secondary e. g. electricity breaks so they cannot cook etc. Secondary include *Fires from ruptured gas mains *Contaminated water system *Loss of trade AVALANCHES & LANDSLIDES Where the slope failure occurs as a result of ground shaking.AVALANCHES & LANDSLIDES Where the slope failure occurs as a result of ground shaking. LIQUEFACTION Violent disruption of the ground causes it to become liquid like. Such extreme shaking causes increased pore water pressure which reduces the effective stress and and then reduces the shear strength of the soil so it fails more easily. Can cause the movement of groundwater. Even though the surface may appear dry, excess water will sometimes come to the surface through cracks bringing liquefied soil, creating soil volcanoes. This can cause damage to buildings and tubing utilities.Buildings can sink as a result. In San Franc isco where development has occurred on reclaimed land in the bay area, the ground is far more in all likelihood to fail due to liquefaction. It is estimated that $100,000 million worth of damage was caused by this secondary effect. LIQUEFACTION Violent disruption of the ground causes it to become liquid like. Such extreme shaking causes increased pore water pressure which reduces the effective stress and therefore reduces the shear strength of the soil so it fails more easily. Can cause the movement of groundwater.Even though the surface may appear dry, excess water will sometimes come to the surface through cracks bringing liquefied soil, creating soil volcanoes. This can cause damage to buildings and underground utilities. Buildings can sink as a result. In San Francisco where development has occurred on reclaimed land in the bay area, the ground is far more likely to fail due to liquefaction. It is estimated that $100,000 million worth of damage was caused by this secondary effe ct. CASE STUDIES CASE STUDIES PROTECTION PROTECTION PREDICTION PREDICTION EARTHQUAKE prudence EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENTEarthquakes are not evenly distributed over the planet but instead, occur in broad, uneven belts. This is because the vast majority of earthquakes are related to plate motion and are therefore found around plate boundaries. *Most powerful are related to destructive margins where the descent of the oceanic crust creates frequent shallow to deep focus earthquakes. *Earthquakes at constructive margins are often submarine and usually distant from human habituation, presenting a comparatively minor hazard. *Earthquakes at conservative margins where plates slip past each other a series of fault lines marks where the crust has failed catastrophically.San Andreas Fault for instance is not a adept feature but a broad shatter zone of interrelated faults. In addition to this earthquakes occur in regions that do not appear to be near active plate margins. The earthquakes in China and central Asia occur along extensive lines of weakness related to the collision of India with the Eurasian plate over 50 million years ago. Earthquakes are not evenly distributed over the planet but instead, occur in broad, uneven belts. This is because the vast majority of earthquakes are related to plate motion and are therefore found around plate boundaries. Most powerful are related to destructive margins where the descent of the oceanic crust creates frequent shallow to deep focus earthquakes. *Earthquakes at constructive margins are often submarine and usually distant from human habituation, presenting a relatively minor hazard. *Earthquakes at conservative margins where plates slip past each other a series of fault lines marks where the crust has failed catastrophically. San Andreas Fault for instance is not a single feature but a broad shatter zone of interrelated faults. In addition to this earthquakes occur in regions that do not appear to be near active plate margins.T he earthquakes in China and central Asia occur along extensive lines of weakness related to the collision of India with the Eurasian plate over 50 million years ago. PREDICTION PREDICTION EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT Example of unreliable prediction 1980s along San Adreas fault in Calafornia studies of paterns led to predictions of an earthquake between 1988 and 1992. The predicted earthquake actually happened in 2004. China 1975 observations of changes in land elevation ground water levels and animal behaviour led to an evactuation warning the day before of a 7. magnitiude earthquake struck. This saved many lives. BUT there was no warning of the 1976 Tangshan earthquake 7. 6 mag which caused 250,000 fatalities. Example of unreliable prediction 1980s along San Adreas fault in Calafornia studies of paterns led to predictions of an earthquake between 1988 and 1992. The predicted earthquake actually happened in 2004. China 1975 observations of changes in land elevation g round water levels and animal behaviour led to an evactuation warning the day before of a 7. 3 magnitiude earthquake struck. This saved many lives.BUT there was no warning of the 1976 Tangshan earthquake 7. 6 mag which caused 250,000 fatalities. Currently no reliable way to accurately predict when an earthquake will occur. BUT There are several methods 1) Seismic Records- studying patterns of earthquakes and using these to predict the next event. Seismic shock waves are recorded on a seismometer or seismography. 2) Radon Gas Emissions- radon is an inert gas that is released from rocks such as granite at a faster rate when they are fractured by deformation. 3) Ground Water-deformation of the ground water can cause water levels to rise or fall. ) Remote sensing- some evidence that electromagnetic disturbances in atmosphere directly above areas about to have an earthquake can be detected. 5)Low frequency electromagnetic activity- detection of electromagnetic emissions transmitted from Earthquake regions satellite has made observations that luff strong correlations between certain types of low frequency electromagnetic activity and the seismically most active zones on the Earth. Sudden change in the ionosphere electron density and temperature were recorded a week before a 7. magnitude earthquake occurred in South Japan in September 2004. 6)Surveying movement a violate a fault line- known as levelling. Currently no reliable way to accurately predict when an earthquake will occur. BUT There are several methods 1) Seismic Records- studying patterns of earthquakes and using these to predict the next event. Seismic shock waves are recorded on a seismometer or seismography. 2) Radon Gas Emissions- radon is an inert gas that is released from rocks such as granite at a faster rate when they are fractured by deformation. ) Ground Water-deformation of the ground water can cause water levels to rise or fall. 4) Remote sensing- some evidence that electromagnetic disturbance s in atmosphere directly above areas about to have an earthquake can be detected. 5)Low frequency electromagnetic activity- detection of electromagnetic emissions transmitted from Earthquake regions satellite has made observations that show strong correlations between certain types of low frequency electromagnetic activity and the seismically most active zones on the Earth.Sudden change in the ionosphere electron density and temperature were recorded a week before a 7. 1 magnitude earthquake occurred in South Japan in September 2004. 6)Surveying movement across a fault line- known as levelling. Authorities focus on 1)Making buildings/cities more earthquake resistant 2)Raising man awareness about disaster prevention via an education programme 3)Improving earthquake prediction *Better excrement routes and sites to receive evacuees make cities better able to confine the effects of the earthquake. To reduce the risk of fire after an earthquake Japanese government encourage the buildi ng of fire resistant buildings and advanced fire submarine sandwich facilities *All buildings have strict standards to be earthquake proof (New law in 2007 which ensure buildings are double checked to ensure they meet requirements) tortuous for construction firms *Focus on areas prone to earthquakes such as KOBE and or cities like Tokyo where the great unwashed from all over the world go to.Here there are real time equipment and dense observation methods. In dense populated areas such as Tokyo there are several buildings knowing to be more resistant to earthquakes. (See below) Authorities focus on 1)Making buildings/cities more earthquake resistant 2)Raising public awareness about disaster prevention via an education programme 3)Improving earthquake prediction *Better evacuation routes and sites to receive evacuees make cities better able to withstand the effects of the earthquake. To reduce the risk of fire after an earthquake Japanese government encourage the building of fire resistant buildings and advanced fire fighter facilities *All buildings have strict standards to be earthquake proof (New law in 2007 which ensure buildings are double checked to ensure they meet requirements) problematic for construction firms *Focus on areas prone to earthquakes such as KOBE and or cities like Tokyo where people from all over the world go to. Here there are real time equipment and dense observation methods.In dense populated areas such as Tokyo there are several buildings designed to be more resistant to earthquakes. (See below) PROTECTION PROTECTION Citizens are advised to keep some supplies like food, water and blankets as well as scratch aid kits and emergency tools. Police info sheets ensure that people know what to do in each stage of an emergency. Smart meters are installed. These are ply seismic data to allow them to shut down gas supplies automatically in the event of an earthquake. Land use planning attempts to identify the areas at most risk and plan where to build schools and hospitals away from these areas.Insurance is available but even in rich countries like Japan few people are free to pay for such specific cover. Only 7% of people of Kobe had insurance at the time of the earthquake in 1995. Citizens are advised to keep some supplies like food, water and blankets as well as first aid kits and emergency tools. Police info sheets ensure that people know what to do in each stage of an emergency. Smart meters are installed. These are fed seismic data to allow them to shut down gas supplies automatically in the event of an earthquake.Land use planning attempts to identify the areas at most risk and plan where to build schools and hospitals away from these areas. Insurance is available but even in rich countries like Japan few people are willing to pay for such specific cover. Only 7% of people of Kobe had insurance at the time of the earthquake in 1995. DEFINITION EXTRUSIVE ROCK- Igneous rock formed by the crystallisation of ma gma above the surface of the Earth INTRUSIVE ROCK- Igneous rock formed by the crystallisation of magma below the surface of the Earth DEFINITIONEXTRUSIVE ROCK- Igneous rock formed by the crystallisation of magma above the surface of the Earth INTRUSIVE ROCK- Igneous rock formed by the crystallisation of magma below the surface of the Earth BASALTIC (basic) LAVAS Originate abundantly from the upward movement of mantle material. They are most common along spreading ridges but are also found at hot spots and within more developed rift systems ANDESITIC (intermediate) LAVAS be typical of destructive plate margins where crust is being destroyed RHYOLITIC (acid) LACAS Are most often found at destructive and collision margins.Pyroclastic material comprises a wide range of volcanic fragments from ash to larger volcanic bombs. They are characteristic of more gaseous phases of eruption, where the build up of gas beneath blocked volcanic vents creates a violent explosion, shredding the ma gma into finer particles. BASALTIC (basic) LAVAS Originate largely from the upward movement of mantle material. They are most common along spreading ridges but are also found at hot spots and within more developed rift systems ANDESITIC (intermediate) LAVAS Are typical of destructive plate margins where crust is being destroyedRHYOLITIC (acid) LACAS Are most often found at destructive and collision margins. Pyroclastic material comprises a wide range of volcanic fragments from ash to larger volcanic bombs. They are characteristic of more gaseous phases of eruption, where the build up of gas beneath blocked volcanic vents creates a violent explosion, shredding the magma into finer particles. EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS Volcanoes are openings in the Earths crust through which lava, ash and gases erupt. Molten rock beneath the surface is referred to as magma but once it is ejected at the surface it is called lava. At depths the howling(a) pressure upon hot rocks keeps t hem in a semi solid state. *Fissures and fractures in the crust create low pressure areas that allow some material beneath the crust to become molten and rise. *If these molten rocks reach the surface they are give tongue to to be extrusive but if theyre injected into the crust they are said to be intrusive. *But both are termed igneous. Volcanoes are openings in the Earths crust through which lava, ash and gases erupt. Molten rock beneath the surface is referred to as magma but once it is ejected at the surface it is called lava. At depths the enormous pressure upon hot rocks keeps them in a semi solid state. *Fissures and fractures in the crust create low pressure areas that allow some material beneath the crust to become molten and rise. *If these molten rocks reach the surface they are said to be extrusive but if theyre injected into the crust they are said to be intrusive. *But both are termed igneous. SHAPE Fissure Eruptions Occur where an elongated crack in the crust allows lava to spill out over a large area. pitch at spreading ridges where tension pulls the crust apart. E. Iceland in 1973. Found at rifts and early constructive margins. Made of Basaltic Eruption Gentle, durable Shield Volcanoes Made of basaltic rock and form gently sloping cones from layers of less viscous lava. Example Mauna Loa in Hawaii (taller than mount Everest from ocean floor). Found in hot spots where oceanic crust meets oceanic crust Eruptions Gentle and predictable Composite Volcanoes Most common found on land. Created by layers of ash from initial explosive phases of eruptions and subsequent layers of lava from the main eruption phases.E. g. Mount Etna and Vesuvius. (Italy) Rock type Andesitic Location Destructive Margins Acid or loft Volcanoes These are steep sided volcanoes formed from very viscous lava. As the lava cannot travel far it builds up convex cone shaped volcanoes. Lava may solidify in the vent Calderas From when gases that have built up beneath a bloc ked volcanic vent result in a catastrophic eruption that destroys the volcanic summit, leaving an enormous crater where later eruptions may form smaller cones. ACTIVITY Volcanoes have erupted in living memoryDORMANT Volcanoes have erupted within historical record nonexistent Volcanoes will not erupt again. ACTIVITY Volcanoes have erupted in living memory DORMANT Volcanoes have erupted within historical record EXTINCT Volcanoes will not erupt again. With all volcanic regions, the majority of magma never reaches the surface but cools to form coarser grained igneous rocks beneath the ground. These rocks may contribute to surface morphology through uplift, erosion and expose at the surface. Batholiths form when large masses of magma cool very slowly producing coarse grained rocks.Where magma has been squeezed between existing strata it may form a sill (concordant) or a dyke (discordant). Dyke A vertical intrusion with horizontal cooling cracks. Cools rapidly on contact with surround colder rock. Contracts and cracks, cuts cross bedding planes Batholiths Being deep seated and surrounded by hot rock the magma cools slowly so that 1) large crystals form and 2) there is a large metamorphic contact zone Sill A horizontal intrusion along bedding planes with vertical cooling cracks. Cools rapidly on outside on contact with surrounding rocks.Contracts and cracks. With all volcanic regions, the majority of magma never reaches the surface but cools to form coarser grained igneous rocks beneath the ground. These rocks may contribute to surface geomorphology through uplift, erosion and expose at the surface. Batholiths form when large masses of magma cool very slowly producing coarse grained rocks. Where magma has been squeezed between existing strata it may form a sill (concordant) or a dyke (discordant). Dyke A vertical intrusion with horizontal cooling cracks. Cools rapidly on contact with surrounding colder rock.Contracts and cracks, cuts cross bedding planes Batholith s Being deep seated and surrounded by hot rock the magma cools slowly so that 1) large crystals form and 2) there is a large metamorphic contact zone Sill A horizontal intrusion along bedding planes with vertical cooling cracks. Cools rapidly on outside on contact with surrounding rocks. Contracts and cracks. *GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS Even in areas where vulcanism does not produce active volcanoes water heated at depth in the crust by magma put up can periodically escape as stream and hot water.A geyser is an intermittent turbulent discharge of superheated water ejected and come with by a drying up phase. *FUMAROLES Are areas where superheated water turns to steam as it condenses on the surface. These features are typical of areas such as Solfatara in Italy where the mixture of steam and water mixed with sulphur rich gases gives rise to the collective name for these features of solfatara. *GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS Even in areas where vulcanism does not produce active volcanoes wa ter heated at depth in the crust by magma chambers can periodically escape as stream and hot water.A geyser is an intermittent turbulent discharge of superheated water ejected and accompanied by a vapour phase. *FUMAROLES Are areas where superheated water turns to steam as it condenses on the surface. These features are typical of areas such as Solfatara in Italy where the mixture of steam and water mixed with sulphur rich gases gives rise to the collective name for these features of solfatara. Minor Extrusive Features Minor Extrusive Features